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The Historical Ephemeris
Astro-historical timelines 9: THE RENAISSANCE NEPTUNE-PLUTO CYCLE 5: 1398-1892 Part one: waxing hemicycle 1398-1643 © COPYRIGHT 1989/99 Palden Jenkins |
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Key:
* = a period of change or a general trend
? = an uncertain date
| 1398 | INDIA: Timurlenk invades India & sacks Delhi, retires (disease; Delhi Sultanate now small) | 1398 NE CONJ PL Ge Ge | 1398 NE Ge |
| + | C EUROPE: Jan Hus (1369-1415), Wyclifian reformer, lecturing on theology at Prague university | 1398 UR on S Node | |
| + | IBERIA: Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) sponsors expeditions to Africa & Atlantic | 1398 Sa CONJ UR Sg Sg | |
| 1399 | BRITAIN: king deposed; Henry IV King of England (1399-1413) (suppresses rebellion of nobles) | 1399 NE CONJ PL Ge Ge | |
| + | * CHINA: great drainage & irrigation, reforestation & repopulation works by Ming dynasty | ||
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| 1400 | * SE ASIA: Malacca founded, becomes a focal port between Indian & Pacific oceans (dhows meet junks) | ||
| + | ITALY: rise of the Medici family in Florence (seed-point of Renaissance) | ||
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| 1401 | MIDEAST: Mongol Timurlenk conquers Baghdad & Damascus | ||
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| 1402 | MIDEAST: Timurlenk defeats Ottomans in Anatolia at Bt of Ankara (Ottomans disintegrate) | 1402 UR Cp | |
| + | EUROPE: embassy from Ethiopia to Venice (later also to Lisbon, to find support against Mamluks) | ||
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| 1403 | OTTOMANS: Suleiman I, Ottoman sultan (1403-11) (re-enlivens Ottoman culture) | ||
| + | CHINA: Ch'eng Tsu, Emperor (1403-24) (after deposing heir); overseas trade expeditions | ||
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| 1404 | ASIA: Timurlenk plans Islamic Holy War against China | 1404 UR -qcx PL Cp Ge | |
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| 1405 | PERSIA: death of Timurlenk, succeeded by Timurid Shah Rukh (1404-1447) (end of Mongol scourge) | 1405 UR -qcx PL Cp Ge | |
| + | C ASIA: end of Chagatai Khanate of Altai, on death of Timurlenk | ||
| + | * S ASIA: Chinese explore Indian Ocean (1405-33), extract tribute from Sumatra, Ceylon, Hormuz | ||
| 1406 | ITALY: Venice takes over Padua, Florence takes over Pisa | ||
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| 1407 | FRANCE: civil war begins, on Burgundian murder of Duc d'Orleans | 1407 UR -qcx NE Cp Ge | |
| + | BRITAIN: pestilence kills 30,000 in London (brought by ship from outside Europe) | ||
| + | SE ASIA: China defeats Palembang (Sumatra), extracting tribute | ||
| 1408 | W EUROPE: cardinals of Rome & Avignon meet to end the Great Schism | 1408 UR -qcx NE Cp Ge | |
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| 1409 | 1409 UR -qcx NE Cp Ge | 1409 UR Aq | |
| + | 1409 UR -sqt PL Cp Ge | ||
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| 1410 | E EUROPE: Poland defeats Teutonic Knights at Battle of Tannenberg; Prussia declines | 1410 UR -qcx NE Aq Cn | 1410 UR Aq |
| + | C EUROPE: Jan Hus and Hussite followers excommunicated by Archbishop of Prague & Pope | 1410 UR -sqt PL Aq Ge | 1410 NE Cn |
| + | S ASIA: China defeats king of Ceylon | ||
| 1411 | EUROPE: Conciliar Theory ("totality of faithful", not Pope, repr of Will of God): Ch reform period | 1411 NE Cn | |
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| 1412 | INDIA: droughts bring famine in N India | ||
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| 1413 | OTTOMANS: Mehemmed I (1413-21) reconstructs Ottoman empire after Mongol disruptions | 1413 Sa CONJ PL Ge Ge | |
| + | ASIA: Chinese sea missions reach as far as Hormuz, Persia & Aden (1418) | ||
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| 1414 | W EUROPE: Thomas a Kempis' "Imitatio Christi" | 1414 UR -tri PL Aq Ge | |
| + | W EUROPE: Council of Konstanz (1414-18) (33 cardinals, 900 bishops) reforms Catholic church | 1414 Sa CONJ PL Ge Ge | |
| + | ITALY: the Medicis of Florence become papal bankers (rise of large European banking houses) | ||
| 1415 | W EUROPE: Battle of Agincourt: Henry V K of England (1413-22) resumes claim on France, wins | 1415 UR -tri PL Aq Ge | |
| + | NW AFRICA: BEGINNING OF PORTUGUESE OVERSEAS EXPANSION – occupation of Ceuta | 1415 UR -sqt NE Aq Cn | |
| + | C EUROPE: Jan Hus burned at stake at Konstanz for heresy | 1415 Sa CONJ NE Cn Cn | |
| 1416 | 1416 UR -sqt NE Aq Cn | ||
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| - | |||
| 1417 | ROME: end of Great Schism, with election of Pope Martin V (1417-31) | 1417 UR -sqt NE Aq Cn | 1417 UR Pi |
| + | W EUROPE: English take Caen & Normandy | ||
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| 1418 | 1418 UR -sqt NE Pi Cn | ||
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| 1419 | C EUROPE: war between HRE & Bohemian Hussites (1419-36) (over church reform and heresy) | 1419 Sa OPPN UR Vi Pi | |
| + | C EUROPE: Sigismund of Hungary obtains Bohemia; defeated by Hussites 1420 | ||
| + | E ASIA: Korean King Sejong (1419-51) (expands and safeguards Korea, ind cultural development) | ||
| 1420 | FRANCE: Henry V of England enters Paris (recognised heir to French throne) | 1420 Sa OPPN UR Vi Pi | |
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| 1421 | CHINA: capital moved from Nanking to Beijing (modern'sn & to strengthen northern frontier) | ||
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| 1422 | C EUROPE: Hussites defeat Crusading HRE army near Prague (proto-Reformation victory for 'heretics') | ||
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| 1423 | 1423 NE +ssx PL Le Cn | 1423 PL Cn | |
| + | 1423 NE Le | ||
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| 1424 | 1424 UR -SQR PL Pi Ge | 1424 UR Ar | |
| + | 1424 UR -tri NE Pi Cn | 1424 PL Cn | |
| + | 1424 NE +ssx PL Cn Ge | ||
| 1425 | C EUROPE: division amongst Hussites between radicals (Taborites) & moderates | 1425 UR -SQR PL Pi Ge | 1424 NE Le |
| + | 1425 UR -tri NE Ar Le | 1425 PL Cn | |
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| 1426 | W EUROPE: Holland becomes centre of European music | 1426 UR -SQR PL Ar Cn | 1425 UR Ar |
| + | 1426 UR -tri NE Ar Le | ||
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| 1427 | C AMERICA: GROWTH OF AZTEC EMPIRE (Itzcoatl, r1428-40, ests league of three Aztec cities) | 1426 NE on N Node | |
| + | C AMERICA: Quiche Maya dominate Guatemalan highlands (1425-75, Quicab) | 1427 UR -tri NE Ar Le | |
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| 1428 | SE ASIA: Chinese expelled from Vietnam; establishing of Le dynasty (1428-1788) | ||
| + | FRANCE: meteoric career of Jeanne d'Arc, leading French armies against England | ||
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| 1429 | FRANCE: French regrouping & revival; Jeanne d'Arc seige of Orleans (historic victory) | ||
| + | EUROPE: Henry VI K of England (1429-61); Charles VII K of France (1427-61) (crowned at Rheims) | ||
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| 1430 | RUSSIA: foundation of Khanate of Crimea (1430-1783) (Russian atavism of Mongol empire) | 1430 Sa OPPN PL Cp Cn | |
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| 1431 | SE ASIA: Siamese invasion of Cambodia leads to abandonment of Angkor Wat & end of Khmer empire | ||
| + | FRANCE: Jeanne d'Arc burned at stake at Rouen (after being caught by Burgundians, Eng allies) | ||
| + | W EUROPE: Henry VI of England crowned King of France at occupied Paris | ||
| 1432 | GERMANY: peasant revolt at Worms 1432 UR Ta | ||
| + | ASIA: Chinese Cheng Ho (Islamic) visits 20 states, obtaining tribute even frm Mecca | ||
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| 1433 | ATLANTIC: Portuguese Gonzalo Cabral discovers the Azores (prelude to Age of Exploration) | ||
| + | W EUROPE: Council of Basel (1431-49) resists Papal power (friction between bishops & Pope) | 1433 UR Ta | |
| + | AFRICA: acceleration of Euro trading & plundering in W Africa (for slaves & gold) | ||
| 1434 | W AFRICA: Portuguese explore W African coast | 1434 Sa OPPN NE Aq Le | |
| + | ITALY: Cosimo de Medici becomes ruler of Florence (1434-64); revolt in Rome against Pope | ||
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| 1435 | FRANCE: Peace of Arras between France & Burgundy (ends Burgundian alliance with England) | 1435 UR -sxt PL Ta Cn | |
| + | N EUROPE: Sweden's Riksdag (parliament) meets for the first time 1435 PL on N Node | ||
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| 1436 | FRANCE: English army retires from Paris | 1436 UR -sxt PL Ta Cn | |
| + | BRITAIN: Scots beat English at Bt of Berwick on Tweed; truce between England & Scotland 1438 | ||
| + | C EUROPE: Hussite Wars end; HRE: Sigismund acknowledged King of Bohemia (succ Albert V 1438) | ||
| 1437 | CHINA: Emperor Ying Tsung (1436-49 & 57-64) (conservative) | 1437 NE Vi | |
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| 1438 | * S AMERICA: INCA CONQUERING PERIOD started by Pachacutec, 9th Inca | 1438 NE +ssq PL Vi Cn | 1438 NE Vi |
| + | HRE: Habsburg Albert II of Austria elected HRE (office remains with Habsburgs until abolition in 1806) | ||
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| 1439 | 1439 NE +ssq PL Vi Cn | 1439 UR Ge | |
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| 1440 | GERMANY: election of Frederick V of Styria, King of Germany (1440-93) | 1440 UR -SQR NE Ge Vi | 1440 UR Ge |
| + | C EUROPE: Nicholas of Cusa (1401-64) "Of Learned Ignorance" (tolerance, religious pluralism) | 1440 NE +ssq PL Vi Cn | |
| + | SE ASIA: final abandonment of Angkor Way by Khmers (effective end of Khmer culture) | 1440 UR -ssq PL Ge Cn | |
| 1441 | 1441 UR -SQR NE Ge Vi | ||
| + | 1441 UR -ssq PL Ge Cn | ||
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| 1442 | W AFRICA: Portuguese navigators explore coastal W Africa (establishing Euro-African trade) | 1442 UR -SQR NE Ge Vi | |
| + | 1442 UR on N Node | ||
| + | 1442 Sa CONJ UR Ge Ge | ||
| 1443 | E EUROPE: Hungarian nationalists under Janos Hunyady defeat Ottoman Turks at Nish | 1443 UR -SQR NE Ge Vi | |
| + | 1443 Sa CONJ UR Ge Ge | ||
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| 1444 | E EUROPE: Battle of Varna, Turks beat Hungary & Poland (Turkish attempt to dominate Europe) | ||
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| 1445 | INNOVN: German Johannes Gutenberg (1397-1468) publishes the first printed book in Europe | 1445 Sa CONJ PL Cn Cn | |
| + | RUSSIA: foundation of Khanate of Kazan (1445-1556) (post-Mongol khanate in E Russia) | 1445 UR -ssx PL Ge Cn | |
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| 1446 | E ASIA: Korean alphabetical script replaces Chinese script in Korea | 1446 Sa CONJ PL Cn Cn | 1446 UR Cn |
| + | 1446 UR -ssx PL Ge Cn | ||
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| 1447 | AUSTRIA: Pope grants Concordat (giving Austria rights over its national church) | 1447 UR Cn | |
| + | E AFRICA: Great Zimbabwe superseded by state of Mwenemutapa (gold, slaves, towns) | 1447 PL Le | |
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| 1448 | BRITAIN: Anglo-Scots war renewed; houses of Lancaster & York become major rivals in England | 1448 PL Le | |
| + | E EUROPE: Ottomans under Murad II defeat Hungarians under Janos Hunyady | ||
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| 1449 | W EUROPE: English break truce with France | ||
| + | CHINA: 1 million people die in rebellions against Ming in Fukien & Chekiang | ||
| + | CHINA: Emperor Ying Tsung captured for a year by Mongols (dynastic disorder in China) |
| 1450 | * W AFRICA: SONGHAI EMPIRE in SAHEL reaches its prime, with a university at Timbuktu | 1450 Sa CONJ NE Vi Vi | |
| + | * S AMERICA: Monomatapa empire founded | ||
| + | AFRICA: European slave trade begins (10 million slaves transported 1450-1870) | ||
| + | * EUROPE: GENERAL ECONOMIC RECOVERY & UPSWING in EUROPE | ||
| + | ITALY: Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan (1450-66) | ||
| + | GERMANY: Gutenberg prints the Konstanz Mass Book (beginning of communications revolution) | ||
| 1451 | S AMERICA: INCAS overcome CHIMU Indian civilisation in N Peru (becomes tributary state) | 1451 NE Li | |
| + | OTTOMANS: Mehemmed II The Conqueror (1451-81) rebuilds Ottoman empire | ||
| + | JAPAN: Shogun Yoshimasa (1449-90) (collapse of authority, yet cultural upswing, court style) | ||
| 1452 | EUROPE: the MEDICI in FLORENCE STIMULATE THE RENAISSANCE and growth of culture & humanism | 1452 NE Li | |
| + | INDIA: Lodi dynasty inherits the Delhi Sultanate (1451-1526) | ||
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| 1453 | W EUROPE: END of HUNDRED YEARS' WAR – England loses all continental possessions except Calais | 1453 UR -sxt NE Le Li | 1453 UR Le |
| + | E EUROPE: FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE TO OTTOMANS (end of Byzantium, Ottoman zenith starts) | ||
| + | OTTOMANS: St Sophia Basilica becomes a mosque, Istanbul (Constantinople) becomes Ottoman capital | ||
| 1454 | GERMANY: GUTENBERG PRINTS THE MAZARIN BIBLE at Mainz (first proper use of movable type) | 1454 UR -sxt NE Le Li | |
| + | S AMERICA: yellow fever wipes out much of Mayan culture | ||
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| 1455 | BRITAIN: Wars of Roses (1455-85), between Houses of Lancaster & York (disarray in law & government) | 1455 UR -sxt NE Le Li | |
| + | W AFRICA: Venetian sailors explore up the Senegal river (trade prospectors) | 1455 UR CONJ PL Le Le | |
| + | * N AMERICA: depopulation & decline of Mississippian temple-cities ('empty quarter') | ||
| 1456 | OTTOMANS: Turks conquer Greece and overrun Athens; Topkapi Palace built in Istanbul | 1456 UR CONJ PL Le Le | |
| + | E EUROPE: Janos Hunyady & Hungarians expel Ottomans from Belgrade (Hungary blocks Turks) | 1456 HALLEY'S COMET | |
| + | ITALY: Naples ruined by major earthquake (35,000 die) | ||
| 1457 | PERSIA: Persia reunited by Mogul Abu Said, Sultan of Iran (1452-69) | ||
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| 1458 | C EUROPE: Hussite leader George of Podebrad, King of Bohemia (1458-71) | ||
| + | C EUROPE: Matthias Corvinus, K of Hungary (1458-90) (strong & prosperous period for Hungary) | ||
| + | OTTOMANS: Turks wreck the Acropolis (to break Greek identity, force subservience) | ||
| 1459 | BRITAIN: renewal of Wars of Roses in England 1459 UR Vi | ||
| + | ROME: Conciliar Theory declared heretical by Pope (end of reform period in RC Church) | ||
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| 1460 | MIDEAST: fall of Trapezus, last Christian stronghold in Asia | 1460 UR -ssq NE Vi Li | 1460 UR Vi |
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| 1461 | BRITAIN: Edward IV King of England (1461-83) (House of York; Wars of Roses continue) | 1461 NE +sxt PL Li Le | |
| + | ITALY: Leonardo da Vinci at study under Verocchio | 1461 UR -ssq NE Vi Li | |
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| 1462 | 1462 NE +sxt PL Li Le | ||
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| 1463 | OTTOMANS: Turks conquer Bosnia; Herzegovina 1467 | 1463 NE +sxt PL Li Le | |
| + | 1463 Sa OPPN PL Aq Le | ||
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| 1464 | BRITAIN: peace between England & Scotland (England settles into general peace) | 1464 NE +sxt PL Li Le | 1464 PL Vi |
| + | FRANCE: Louis XI establishes French royal mail service | 1464 Sa OPPN PL Aq Le | 1464 NE Sc |
| + | W AFRICA: SONGHAI ASCENDANCY under Sanni Ali (Mali and gold trade eclipsed by Songhai) | ||
| 1465 | 1465 NE +sxt PL Li Le | 1465 PL Vi | |
| + | 1465 NE Sc | ||
| + | 1466 NE +sxt PL Sc Vi | 1465 UR Li | |
| 1466 | C ASIA: foundation of Khanate of Astrakhan (1466-1556) (post-Mongol khanate) | 1466 UR +ssx PL Li Vi | 1466 UR Li |
| + | 1466 UR -ssx NE Li Sc | ||
| + | 1466 Sa OPPN UR Ar Li | ||
| 1467 | MIDEAST: Turkoman Uzun Hasan of Azerbaijan & Kurdistan (Horde of White Sheep) takes Persia | 1467 NE +sxt PL Sc Vi | 1466 PL Vi |
| + | JAPAN: Onin War (1467-77) (reshuffling of feudal domains, prelude to century of ongoing war) | 1467 Sa OPPN UR Ar Li | 1466 UR Li |
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| 1468 | * N EUROPE: slow decline of Hansa League (trade shifts to Atlantic, Baltic powers grow) | 1468 NE +sxt PL Sc Vi | |
| + | 1468 Sa OPPN UR Ar Li | ||
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| 1469 | ITALY: Lorenzo de Medici the "Magnificent", ruler of Florence (1469-92) (cultural growth) | 1469 NE +sxt PL Sc Vi | |
| + | IDEAS: Pliny's "Historia Naturalis" (first Euro scientific book ever published) | 1469 Sa OPPN NE Ta Sc | |
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| 1470 | S AMERICA: INCAS DESTROY CHIMU KINGDOM (developing central control of large, efficient empire) | 1470 NE +sxt PL Sc Vi | |
| + | ASIA: Khan Dayan reunites Mongols in peaceable Buddhist Asian kingdom (1470-1543) | 1470 Sa OPPN NE Ta Sc | |
| + | AFRICA: Portuguese explore Gold Coast | ||
| 1471 | SE ASIA: Annam (N Vietnam) annexes Champa (S Vietnam), expanding southwards | 1471 NE +sxt PL Sc Vi | |
| + | BRITAIN: climax of civil war in England; Edward IV enters London victorious | ||
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| 1472 | N AMERICA: Deitrich Pining, Danish sailor, discovers Newfoundland | 1472 NE +sxt PL Sc Vi | 1472 UR Sc |
| + | RUSSIA: Ivan III marries Sophia Palaeologus (neice of last Byzantine emperor) | 1472 UR +ssq PL Sc Vi | |
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| 1473 | MED'N: Cyprus taken over by Venice (for trading advantage in NE Med'n) | 1473 NE +sxt PL Sc Vi | |
| + | * S AMERICA: Inca Tupac Yupanqui conquers Bolivia & N Chile (1471-93) | ||
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| 1474 | IBERIA: Isabella, Queen of Aragon (1474-1504) | 1474 NE +sxt PL Sc Vi | |
| + | INNOVN: William Caxton prints first book in English at Bruges; Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales" 1477 | ||
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| 1475 | FRANCE: Burgundy at the height of its power, partitioned 1477 between France & Habsburgs | 1475 NE +sxt PL Sc Vi | |
| + | OTTOMANS: Khanate of Crimea (successor state to Golden Horde) allies with Ottomans | ||
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| 1476 | 1476 NE +sxt PL Sc Vi | ||
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| 1477 | W EUROPE: Habsburgs acquire the (later Austrian) Netherlands by marriage | 1477 NE +sxt PL Sc Vi | |
| + | 1478 NE +sxt PL Sc Vi | ||
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| 1478 | RUSSIA: Ivan the Great, Czar of Russia (1478-1505), subdues Novgorod & ejects Mongols (1480) | 1478 UR CONJ NE Sc Sc | 1478 PL Li |
| + | 1479 UR CONJ NE Sc Sc | 1478 UR Sg | |
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| 1479 | IBERIA: union of Aragon & Castile under Ferdinand & Isabella (Spanish state takes shape) | 1479 UR +sxt PL Sc Vi | 1478 NE Sg |
| + | 1479 NE +sxt PL Sg Li | 1479 PL Li | |
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| 1480 | * PERSIA: local Safavid dynasty gradually removes rule by Turkoman Horde of White Sheep | 1480 NE +sxt PL Sg Li | 1479 UR Sg |
| + | RUSSIA: RISE OF RUSSIAN POWER (Ivan the Great breaks with Golden Horde, expands territories) | 1480 Sa CONJ PL Li Li | 1479 NE Sg |
| + | C AMERICA: civil wars rage in northern Maya states | ||
| 1481 | IBERIA: beginning of Spanish Inquisition under state & church; Jewish converts examined | 1481 NE +sxt PL Sg Li | |
| + | 1481 UR on S Node | ||
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| 1482 | W EUROPE: Peace of Arras between Louis XI King of France (1461-83) and Austrian Habsburgs | ||
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| 1483 | RUSSIA: Russians begin exploration of Siberia (in vacuum brought by Mongol decline) | ||
| + | INDIA: 700 Hindu Rajputs commit ritual death rather than convert to Islam | ||
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| 1484 | OTTOMANS: Ottomans conquer most of Black Sea coast (restricting Russian access) | ||
| + | ROME: Papal Bull "Summis desiderantes" against witchcraft & sorcery | ||
| + | AFRICA: Portuguese discover the Congo river, meet with king of advanced Kongo kingdom | ||
| + | BRITAIN: Richard III K of England (1483-5) (reforms law, taxation & trading rules in England) | ||
| 1485 | BRITAIN: Bt of Bosworth, Richard dies; Wars of Roses end (Henry, heir to H of Lancaster wins) | ||
| + | BRITAIN: Henry VII (1485-1509); TUDOR DYNASTY (1485-1603) (midwives to British Empire) | ||
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| 1486 | GERMANY: election of Maximilian I German King (1486-1519) | 1486 Sa CONJ NE Sg Sg | 1486 UR Cp |
| + | * EUROPE: Botticelli (1444-1510) painter & Durer (1471-1528) engraver, at work | ||
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| 1487 | IBERIA: Spaniards conquer Malaga from Moors | ||
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| 1488 | W EUROPE: Flemish towns revolt against Maximilian I (resenting distant rule) | ||
| + | JAPAN: first Ikkoikki uprising (religious uprisings venting discontent) | ||
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| 1489 | 1489 Sa CONJ UR Cp Cp | ||
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| 1490 | ITALY: Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), inventor & genius, at work | 1490 PL Sc | |
| + | INDIA: Kabir (1440-1518), teacher (reconciliation & Hindu-Muslim unity, seeds Sikh sect) | ||
| + | AFRICA: King Nzinga Nkuwu of Congo converts to Christianity (Portuguese missionaries) | ||
| 1491 | C EUROPE: Vladislav II recognises Habsburg right of succession in Hungary & Bohemia | 1491 PL Sc | |
| + | * N EUROPE: contraction of Hansa League (overseas offices & warehouses close) | ||
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| 1492 | IBERIA: FALL of ARAB GRENADA: Arabs and Jews expelled from Spain; persecution by Inquisition | ||
| + | FRANCE: Charles VIII K of France (1483-98) takes control of government | ||
| + | W EUROPE: Henry VII attacks France, after Fr support for Perkin Warbeck (large indemnity paid) | ||
| + | AMERICAS: COLUMBUS explores Caribbean: Bahamas, Cuba & Haiti; MED'N: Span conq Maghreb | ||
| + | EUROPE: Behain constructs the first globe; da Vinci designs a flying machine | ||
| + | E EUROPE: Ottomans finally invade Hungary and (1493) Dalmatia & Croatia (Europe at risk) | ||
| 1493 | N AMERICA: Incas expand in Equador, found Quito as 2nd cap; first Span settlement in New World | 1493 PL Peri 7Sc | 1493 NE Cp |
| + | GERMANY: peasants' revolt in SW Germany and Alsace | 1493 UR +ssx NE Aq Cp | 1493 UR Aq |
| + | * EUROPE: publishing profession develops, merging typefounding, printing, bookselling | ||
| + | ITALY: Sforzas of Milan & Borgias of Florence gain in power through marriage & favour | ||
| 1494 | W EUROPE: beginning of rivalry for European dominance between Habsburgs & France (to 1700s) | 1494 UR +ssx NE Aq Cp | |
| + | S AMERICA: Treaty of Tordesillas: New World divided between Portugal & Spain | ||
| + | * W AFRICA: zenith of Songhai empire (1494-1529) under Askia Mohammed | ||
| + | BRITAIN: Drogheda parliament makes Ireland subservient to England; HRE supports Perkin Warbeck | ||
| 1495 | ITALY: Charles VIII (Fr) inv Italy (Naples); Pope flees; peace by Sforza (end Papal primacy) | ||
| + | HRE: Diet of Worms, law and tax reforms in Germany | ||
| + | EUROPE: major works by da Vinci (1452-1519), Heironymus Bosch (1450-1516), Durer (1471-1528) | ||
| + | W EUROPE: syphilis epidemic spread from Naples by French troops | ||
| 1496 | N AFRICA: Spain takes Tenerife, to weaken Arab influence (beginning of overseas expansion) | 1496 UR +SQR PL Aq Sc | |
| + | * EUROPE: Sforza's 1495 treaty sets precedent for Balance-of-Power politics of modern Europe | ||
| + | BRITAIN: Perkin Warbeck claims Eng throne (1492-99), agitation in Scotland, Ireland & SW England | ||
| + | EUROPE: royal marriages build new alliances -- Spain-Austria, Florence-Naples, Portugal-Spain | ||
| 1497 | N EUROPE: Danish king Johann II invades Sweden and revives Scandinavian Union | 1497 UR +SQR PL Aq Sc | |
| + | BRITAIN: risings in England; rebels defeated, Warbeck captured; executed 1499 | ||
| + | N AMERICA: John Cabot (Genoan, sailing from England) makes landfall in Newfoundland | ||
| + | ATLANTIC: da Gama (Port) sails southern Trade Winds, rounds Cape of Good Hope, enters Pacific | ||
| + | N AMERICA: French explorer Cartier explores Labrador, Quebec, St Lawrence | ||
| 1498 | C AMERICA: Columbus explores Caribbean coasts and islands, thinking it Asian paradise | 1498 UR +SQR PL Aq Sc | |
| + | ASIA: Portuguese Vasco da Gama reaches Malabar, India, rounding Africa and crossing Indian Ocean | ||
| + | INNOVN: Michaelangelo (1475-1564) & Erasmus (philosopher, 1465-1539) at work | ||
| + | FRANCE: Louis XII, king of France (1498-1515) | ||
| 1499 | EUROPE: Switzerland becomes an independent republic (after war with Swabia & Peace of Basel) | 1499 UR +SQR PL Aq Sc | |
| + | * EUROPE: END OF EARLY RENAISSANCE; BEGINNING OF HIGH RENAISSANCE | 1499 Sa OPPN PL Ta Sc | |
| + | IBERIA: Inquisition forces mass conversion of Moors (stimulating Arab revolt in Grenada) | ||
| + | OTTOMANS: Turks defeat Venetian fleet; treaty 1503, Venice abandons Lepanto |
| 1500 | PERSIA: SHAH ISMAEL I FOUNDS PERSIAN SAFAVID DYNASTY (until 1736) | 1500 UR +SQR PL Aq Sc | |
| + | S AMERICA: Brazil claimed for Portugal by Cabral; Vespucci explores Amazonas; Greenland rediscovered | 1500 Sa OPPN PL Ta Sc | |
| + | GERMANY: first regular postal link established between Vienna & Brussels | ||
| + | INNOVN: Wynkyn de Worde opens printing press on Fleet St, London (birth of an institution) | ||
| 1501 | W EUROPE: Peace of Trent, HRE recognises French gains in N Italy; Louis XII king of Naples | 1501 UR +ssq NE Pi Cp | 1501 UR Pi |
| + | E EUROPE: Ivan III invades Lithuania; parts of E Poland 1503 (Russian expansionism) | ||
| + | ROME: Papal Bull orders burning of all books questioning church authority | ||
| + | RUSSIA: final end of Khanate of the Golden Horde in Uzbekistan & Astrakhan (last Mongol state) | ||
| 1502 | INDIA: Portuguese colony founded at Cochin, by Vasco da Gama (first in European foothold in India) | 1502 UR +ssq NE Pi Cp | 1502 PL Sg |
| + | C AMERICA: AZTEC ZENITH, Montezuma II, Aztec ruler (1502-20); Columbus explores Honduras | ||
| + | S AMERICA: Amerigo Vespucci realises that S America is a continent, not part of Asia | ||
| + | ITALY: Bellini ("Baptism of Christ") & Botticelli ("Last Communion of St Jerome") at work | ||
| 1503 | BRITAIN: James I of Scotland marries Margaret Tudor (seed of Stuart dynasty 1603) | 1503 UR +ssq NE Pi Cp | 1503 PL Sg |
| + | GERMANY: War of Succession for throne of Holy Roman Empire (Bavaria vs Palatinate) | ||
| + | ITALY: Spain fights France over Naples, wins; da Vinci (1452-1519) paints "Mona Lisa" | ||
| + | AFRICA: Portuguese colonise Zanzibar as trading station; Mozambique 1506 | ||
| 1504 | ITALY: Treaty of Lyons: Naples to Spain (beginning of Habsburg domination in Italy) | 1504 Sa OPPN NE Cn Cp | |
| + | C ASIA: Mongols under Babur expelled from Ferghana by Uzbeks; Babur captures Kabul (Afghanistan) | ||
| + | INNOVN: construction of a Suez canal first proposed, by Venetians to the Turks | ||
| + | BRITAIN: Henry VII places Guilds & Companies under state supervision | ||
| 1505 | INDIAN OCEAN: Portuguese establish trading posts in East Africa and explore Ceylon | 1505 Sa OPPN NE Cn Cp | |
| + | GERMANY: Maximilian I institutes COUNTER-REFORMATION of HRE (Habsburg designs on power) | ||
| + | RUSSIA: death of Ivan the Great, succeeded by Vasili (Basil) III | ||
| + | EUROPE: Bosch's "Garden of Earthly Delights" (marks last fling of Gothic Middle Ages) | ||
| 1506 | IBERIA: riots in Lisbon lead to slaughter of 2000-4000 converted Jews | 1506 NE Aq | |
| + | ITALY: beginning of rebuilding of St Peter's, Rome, by Bramante, to take 120 years | ||
| + | S AMERICA: Sugar cane first grown by Spaniards | ||
| + | GERMANY: spices from East Indies first imported to Europe (by trader Jakob Fugger, Augsburg) | ||
| 1507 | GERMANY: first use of the name "America" (after Vespucci) in Waldseemueller's Atlas | 1507 NE Aq | |
| + | BRITAIN: plague strikes London | ||
| + | HRE: Diet of Konstanz recognises unity of HRE under Maximilian I (anti-Habsburg feelings) | ||
| + | GERMANY: Martin Luther ordained as a priest in the Cath church (experienced conversion 1505) | ||
| 1508 | ITALY: Michaelangelo (Cistine Chapel), da Vinci (turbine) & Raphael (painter) at work | 1508 UR Ar | |
| + | C AMERICA: SPANISH CONQUESTS BEGIN: Puerto Rico 1508-11, Cuba 1511-15, Panama 1509-19 | ||
| + | MIDEAST: Baghdad becomes a Persian Safavid province | ||
| + | SE AFRICA: Portuguese colonisation of Mozambique begins (gold, slaves, naval base) | ||
| + | GERMANY: Maximilian I assumes title of HR Emperor; German king now automatically becomes HRE | ||
| + | ITALY: Venice under attack from League of Cambrai; defeated 1509 (envy over trading strength) | ||
| 1509 | INNOVN: the pocket watch is invented by Peter Henlein in Nurnberg 1509 UR +sxt NE Ar Aq | 1509 UR Ar | |
| + | S ASIA: Portuguese control Indian Ocean by routing Egyptian & Gujarati fleets; Malacca visited | 1509 Sa OPPN UR Li Ar | |
| + | GERMANY: persecution of Jews in Germany by Johann Pfefferkorn, supported by HRE | 1509 NE on S Node | |
| + | BRITAIN: Henry VIII becomes King of England (age 17) | 1509 Sa OPPN UR Li Ar | |
| 1510 | INDIA: Goa captured by Portuguese (first European possession in Asia) | 1510 UR +sxt NE Ar Aq | |
| + | N AMERICA: East coast of North America comprehensively explored by Europeans | 1510 Sa OPPN UR Li Ar | |
| + | S AMERICA: transatlantic slave trade begins -- Portuguese take slaves to Brazil | 1510 Sa OPPN UR Li Ar | |
| + | N AFRICA: end of Spanish crusade against Moors, Spain retains seized ports in the Maghreb | ||
| 1511 | SE ASIA: Portuguese take emporium of Malacca, to dominate trade in the Far East | 1511 UR +sxt NE Ar Aq | |
| + | E EUROPE: Poland establishes serfdom | ||
| + | BRITAIN: Henry VIII begins major reforms of Royal Navy (prelude to English imp expansion) | ||
| + | EUROPE: Pope forms Holy League (Venice, Aragon, Britain) to drive French out of Italy | ||
| 1512 | INNOVN: Copernicus proposes heliocentric solar system in "Commentariolus" | 1512 UR +sxt NE Ar Aq | |
| + | PERSIA: Shi'ite Islam becomes the state religion of Persia; Ismail drives Uzbeks from Khorasan | ||
| + | OTTOMANS: Selim I 'The Grim' becomes Sultan of Turkey (1512-20); friction with Shi'ite Persia | ||
| + | E EUROPE: war between Russia & Poland (1512-22) (for space & Russian access to Baltic) | ||
| + | W AFRICA: Askia Mohammed of Songhai ovecomes the Hausa city-states (N Nigeria) | ||
| 1513 | BRITAIN: English beat the Scots at Bt of Flodden Field (James IV claiming English throne | ||
| + | ASIA: Portuguese visit E Indies; Alvarez reaches Canton, China | ||
| + | C AMERICA: Balboa crosses Panama to Pacific; Ponce de Leon claims Florida, de Cuellar Cuba | ||
| + | S AMERICA: Inca Huayna Capac completes subjection of Quito culture (Equador) | ||
| 1514 | C EUROPE: peasants' revolt in Hungary (against Turks); peasants' revolt in S Germany | 1514 UR +tri PL Ar Sg | |
| + | RUSSIA: Russians under Vasili III take Smolensk (part of westward expansion) | ||
| + | ROME: Pope Leo X issues Papal Bull against slavery, forbids printing of books without permit | ||
| + | * GERMANY: financier Jakob Fugger (1459-1525) at peak of wealth & influence | ||
| 1515 | ASIA: Portuguese gain mastery of trade with East by taking Hormuz (Persia) | 1515 UR +tri PL Ar Sg | |
| + | BRITAIN: Thomas Wolsey appointed Lord Chancellor of England under Henry VIII | ||
| + | BRITAIN: laws made against enclosure of common land (against big landowners) | ||
| + | OTTOMANS: Selim I conquers Anatolia & Turkestan, attacking Persia (Safavid setbacks) | ||
| 1516 | BRITAIN: Thomas More writes "Utopia", describing a land governed by Reason | 1516 UR +tri PL Ta Cp | 1516 PL Cp |
| + | BENELUX: Erasmus publishes edited Bible in Greek and Latin | 1516 UR Ta | |
| + | EUROPE: Charles I unites HABSBURG DYNASTY, uniting Spain-Neths-Burg'y-Sicily-Span America | ||
| + | OTTOMANS: OTTOMAN EXPANSION: Turks overrun Syria, Jerusalem, Egypt and, by 1517, Arabia & Mecca | ||
| 1517 | Mexico: Mayan civilisation in Yucatan discovered by Spanish explorer Cordoba | 1517 UR +tri PL Ta Cp | |
| + | GERMANY: REFORMATION: MARTIN LUTHER'S '95 THESES' on RC church abuses, at Wittenberg | ||
| + | N AFRICA: end of the Egyptian MAMLUK EMPIRE, brought about by Ottoman Selim I | ||
| + | AFRICA: Hausa confederation defeats Songhai empire (becoming major power in NW Africa) | ||
| 1518 | EUROPE: Peace of London ends war between England, France, HRE, Pope & Spain -- Wolsey's doing | 1518 UR +tri PL Ta Cp | |
| + | * INNOVN: spectacles on public sale; Asian porcelain, coffee & chocolate introduced | 1518 Sa CONJ PL Cp Cp | |
| + | BRITAIN: founding of Royal College of Physicians (Linacre) & Royal Exchange (1519, Gresham) | ||
| + | * INDIA: teacher Chaitanya revives Vishnu worship in E & N India; hindu revival | ||
| 1519 | EUROPE: Habsburg Charles I (Sp) elected HRE Charles V (biggest Euro ruler since Charlemagne) | ||
| + | INDIA: Sikh religion founded by Guru Nanak in Punjab | ||
| + | GERMANY: Zwingli initiates Swiss Reformation; Luther questions Papal infallibility in Leipzig | ||
| + | INNOVN: MAGELLAN CIRCUMNAVIGATES WORLD (dies 1521 Philippines, survivors return 1522) | ||
| 1520 | N EUROPE: Christian II of Denmark & Norway defeats Sweden (uniting Scandinavia) | 1520 NE Pi | |
| + | GERMANY: Anabaptist movement founded (Protestants who baptise active believers only) | ||
| + | GERMANY: Luther excommunicated; Swiss end Papal allegiance (breakthrough of Reformation) | ||
| + | S AMERICA: CORTES CONQUERS the AZTEC EMPIRE (mainly by disease), claims Mexico for Spain | ||
| + | SE ASIA: rise of the Muslim states of Aceh (Sumatra) and Bantam (Java) | ||
| 1521 | GERMANY: M Luther outlawed by HRE Diet of Worms (Reformation getting serious) | 1521 UR +sqt PL Ta Cp | 1521 NE Pi |
| + | OTTOMANS: Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan (1520-66, greatest Ottoman Sultan) conquers Hungary | ||
| + | BRITAIN: Henry VIII named "Defender of Faith" by Pope Leo X (for anti-Luther stand) | ||
| + | N EUROPE: Gustav Vasa & Swedes resist Danish invasion of Sweden | ||
| 1522 | S AMERICA: Spaniards conquer Guatemala; explore Peru; Santo Domingo cathedral built | 1522 UR +sqt PL Ta Cp | |
| + | MED'N: Turks defeat Knights of St John on Rhodos (1530 Knights move to Malta) | ||
| + | GERMANY: Luther translates New Testament; criticises extremist Protestants at Wittenberg | ||
| + | E AFRICA: war between Islamic Adal (Red Sea state) & Christian Ethiopia | ||
| 1523 | N EUROPE: Gustav Vasa elected King of Sweden: independence 1524 (beg'n of Greater Sweden) | 1523 Sa CONJ NE Pi Pi | 1523 UR Ge |
| + | INNOVN: first marine insurance policies issued in Florence & Venice | 1523 PL on S Node | |
| + | BRITAIN: Parliament under Thomas More rebels against Henry VIIIs tax demands | 1523 UR +sqt PL Ge Cp | |
| + | BRITAIN: Fitzherbert's "Book of Husbandry": first agricultural manual published | ||
| + | * S AMERICA: INCA EMPIRE AT ITS ZENITH (under Huayna Capac, 1493-1525) | ||
| + | CHINA: Ming forces throw off major attack by Japanese Wako pirates (to protect sea trade) | ||
| 1524 | GERMANY: Peasants' War across Germany: Protestants protest feudalism & aristocratic oppression | 1524 Sa CONJ NE Pi Pi | 1524 UR Ge |
| + | INNOVN: Bennewitz's "Cosmographia" (first textbook on theoretical geography) | 1524 UR +sqt PL Ge Cp | |
| + | INDIA: Babur enters NW India; Vasco da Gama becomes first European viceroy in India (to Babur) | ||
| + | C AMERICA: SPANISH CONQUEST OF THE MAYA BEGINS | ||
| 1525 | HRE: Charles V becomes dominant in Italy on defeat of French and Swiss | 1525 UR +SQR NE Ge Pi | |
| + | GERMANY: Anabaptist Munzer sets up a communistic theocracy in Mulhausen; suppressed | ||
| + | S AMERICA: civil war between N (Quito) & S (Cuzco) Inca kingdoms | ||
| + | E EUROPE: Teut Knight Albert makes Prussia a secular duchy; Knights convert to Lutheranism | ||
| 1526 | C EUROPE: Bt of Mohacs: Ottoman Turks overrun Hungary (independent Hungary capital at Bratislava) | 1526 UR +SQR NE Ge Pi | |
| + | C EUROPE: HABSBURG Austro-Hungarian state founded by Ferdinand of Austria, to resist Turks | 1526 UR on N Node | |
| + | INDIA: Bt of Panipat: BABUR CONQUERS DELHI, FOUNDS MUGHAL EMPIRE; Punjab invaded 1525 | ||
| + | GERMANY: creative peak of Albrecht Durer ("The Four Apostles"); Luther's "German Mass" | ||
| 1527 | AUSTRIA: reorganisation of Habsburg gov't (to encompass expansion and Turkish pressures) | 1527 UR +SQR NE Ge Pi | |
| + | ITALY: Florence becomes a republic (cosmopolitan birthplace of Renaissance) | 1527 UR +qcx PL Ge Cp | |
| + | * N EUROPE: Lutheran reformation in Sweden & Denmark; * BENELUX: Hans Holbein's creative period | ||
| + | EUROPE: Rome sacked by Holy Roman Emperor, signalling END OF RENAISSANCE | ||
| + | E AFRICA: Muslim Adali chief Ahmed Gran (Somalia) attacks Christian Ethiopia | ||
| 1528 | BRITAIN: beginning of Scottish Reformation; Henry VIII seeks divorce from Catherine of Aragon | 1528 UR +SQR NE Ge Pi | |
| + | EUROPE: typhus epidemic in Italy, Germany & Britain | 1528 UR +qcx PL Ge Cp | |
| + | IDEAS: Swiss Paracelsus, physician & alchemist, writes 1st manual of medical surgery | ||
| + | * OTTOMAN EMPIRE REACHES PEAK OF INFLUENCE & EXTENT (on failing to take Vienna & Austria) | ||
| 1529 | C EUROPE: Civil war between Catholics & Protestants (Caths eventually defeated) | 1529 UR +qcx PL Ge Cp | |
| + | BRITAIN: "Reformation Parliament" summoned by Henry VIII (over divorce issue); fall of Wolsey | ||
| + | GERMANY: "Protestants" (hence name) protest oppression by Catholic majority at Diet of Speyer | ||
| + | W EUROPE: Peace of Cambrai between France, Holy Roman Empire & England | ||
| + | W AFRICA: Songhai dominates all of West Africa and its trade | ||
| 1530 | ITALY: last HRE coronation by a Pope: Charles V crowned HRE & King of Italy | 1530 UR +qcx PL Ge Cp | 1530 UR Cn |
| + | GERMANY: Prot princes unite as Schmalkaldic League against HRE & Pope; Augsburg Confession | ||
| + | S AMERICA: Portuguese establish first colonies in Brazil | ||
| + | BENELUX: Antwerpen Exchange founded | ||
| 1531 | WORLD: visitation of Halley's Comet, arousing much anticipation | 1531 HALLEY'S COMET | |
| + | * IBERIA: INQUISITION active, persecuting Protestants & Jews; Lisbon destroyed in earthquake | ||
| + | BENELUX: first complete publication of Aristotle's works, by Erasmus (revival of classicism) | ||
| + | BRITAIN: Henry VIII becomes supreme head of Anglican church | ||
| 1532 | E EUROPE: war between Turks (Suleiman I) & Austria; Turks gain in Hungary, Aust keep Croatia | 1532 PL Aq | |
| + | S AMERICA: SPANISH CONQUISTADORS (Pizzarro) attack INCA EMPIRE; Great Inca killed 1533 | ||
| + | FRANCE: Calvin starts the Protestant reformation in France | ||
| + | INNOVN: Rabelais' "Pantagruel" satires; Machiavelli's "The Prince" (about fluxings of states) | ||
| 1533 | RUSSIA: Ivan IV "The Terrible" Czar (1530-84, age 3); St Basil's Church begun | 1533 Sa CONJ UR Cn Cn | |
| + | BRITAIN: Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn -- future Q Elizabeth I born; Henry excommunicated | ||
| + | EUROPE: the first "lunatic asylums" are set up (without medical input) | ||
| + | * AFRICA: Ashanti, Dahomey & Benin kgdms lucratively selling slaves to Europeans | ||
| * | SE ASIA: Dai Viet kingdom fragments into petty states | ||
| 1534 | BRITAIN: HENRY VIII breaks with Rome (tips balance of power to NW Europe, away from Rome) | 1534 Sa OPPN PL Le Aq | 1534 NE Ar |
| + | FRANCE: foundation of Jesuit Order by Loyola (to counteract Protestant ascendancy) | ||
| + | GERMANY: Luther completes German translation of Bible; Anabaptist communistic state at Münster | ||
| + | N AMERICA: French explorer Cartier explores Labrador, Quebec, St Lawrence (first unsuccessful colony) | ||
| + | S AMERICA: first African slaves in New World landed in Brazil (beginning of transatlantic slave trade) | ||
| 1535 | BRITAIN: dissention over Anglican Ch; Sir Th More executed for treason; Holbein's "Henry VIII" | 1535 Sa OPPN PL Le Aq | 1535 NE Ar |
| + | N AFRICA: Charles V (HRE) invades Tunis and frees 20,000 Christian slaves |